ABAI-Accredited ABA Graduate Programs by State (2026)

Written by AppliedBehaviorAnalysisEdu Editorial Staff, Last Updated: August 14, 2026

Quick Answer

The ABAI Verified Course Sequence ended December 31, 2025. Three routes now satisfy Pathway 1 for BCBA certification: ABAI accreditation, ABAI recognition, and APBA accreditation, though APBA hasn’t accredited any programs yet. This directory lists all 76 currently qualifying programs by state, verified against ABAI records in August 2026.

For years, the Verified Course Sequence was the most practical tool a prospective ABA graduate student had. The concept was simple. The Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) reviewed graduate course sequences and confirmed that specified coursework met the BACB’s content requirements for BCBA certification eligibility under Pathway 2. A VCS designation gave you advance evidence that the listed courses would count, though your eligibility still depended on your degree, your fieldwork, and everything else the BACB asks for.

Then it ended, and the replacement doesn’t work the same way at all.

This page does two things. It explains what actually changed and what each pathway now requires. Then it lists every ABA graduate program in the country that currently qualifies under Pathway 1, state by state, checked directly against ABAI’s accreditation and recognition records rather than against what schools say about themselves. Along the way we’ve pulled in what program faculty told us in our own interview series, including several who described building their curricula around a designation that no longer exists.

Dr. Sharlyn Crump, EdD, BCBA

Dr. Sharlyn Crump, EdD, BCBA

Assistant Professor and ABA Program Co-Director, National University

Dr. Crump co-directs National University’s applied behavior analysis program, where keeping coursework aligned with shifting BACB and ABAI standards is part of the job rather than an occasional project. When we interviewed her, she described continually restructuring courses to stay in compliance as the task list and standards changed, which is exactly the work the VCS sunset has now pushed onto every program in the country.

More about Dr. Crump →

59Accredited Programs at 36 US Institutions
22 of 51States and DC With No Qualifying Program
Jan 1, 2032Pathway 1 Becomes the Only Route

In This Guide

What Happened to the Verified Course Sequence?

In January 2023, ABAI and the BACB announced that the VCS system would sunset at the end of 2025. ABAI stopped accepting new VCS applications on January 1, 2025, and discontinued the system on December 31, 2025. From January 1, 2026, every Pathway 2 application requires a Coursework Attestation completed by a designated program contact.

One piece of that transition still matters and often gets missed. If a VCS Coordinator Coursework Attestation was submitted to the BACB before December 31, 2025, it can still support an application through December 31, 2026. If that describes you, you’re inside a window that closes at the end of this year.

The VCS solved a real problem while it lasted. Students researching programs had no easy way to tell whether a curriculum would satisfy the BACB, and the VCS gave them a clear signal: this program has been checked. At its peak, hundreds of course sequences carried the designation, and it became the working standard for how students and employers judged whether a master’s program in ABA was legitimate.

There was always a caveat. The VCS was a content-hour verification, not a quality review. It confirmed that a program covered the required topic areas for the minimum number of instructional hours. It didn’t evaluate faculty credentials, research output, clinical training quality, student outcomes, or exam pass rates. ABAI said so plainly on its own site: “The VCS status indicates that a training program offers the minimum coursework required for certification eligibility; it does not indicate any quality measures of the program.” The VCS told you a program met the floor. It said nothing about the ceiling.

How Central Was the VCS to How Programs Were Built?

Central enough that some programs were designed around it. When we interviewed faculty for our professor series, one program director described a graduate certificate whose requirements were the course sequence, and nothing beyond it.

Faculty Voice

“At NIU, the Certificate of Graduate Study in Behavior Analysis only requires individuals to complete the BCBA course sequence. Since the CGS requires no additional coursework, everyone who completes our VCS also completes the CGS.

Jesse W. Johnson, Ph.D., BCBA-D

Jesse W. Johnson, Ph.D., BCBA-DAssociate Professor of Special Education, Northern Illinois University

Read that again with the sunset in mind. A whole credential, built so that finishing the verified sequence finished the certificate. That’s what “the VCS was the standard” meant in practice, and it’s why the sunset isn’t a paperwork change.

What Our Interview Series Shows About the VCS Era

Across the 61 program faculty in our ABA Professor Interview Series, 36 raised the Verified Course Sequence on their own when describing their programs. Only 5 mentioned ABAI accreditation. That’s our own interview pool rather than a survey of the profession, so treat it as a snapshot rather than a measurement. But it’s a striking one, and it comes from the people running the programs.

So why end something programs leaned on that heavily? Because ABA is maturing as a profession. Look at nursing, social work, or licensed counseling, where programmatic accreditation is the expectation rather than the exception. The field has been moving that way for years, and the VCS sunset accelerates it. The BACB has now set a hard date: from January 1, 2032, Pathway 1 will be the only eligibility route for BCBA certification.

That doesn’t mean Pathway 2 vanished. It didn’t. But how it works is different now.

What Does Pathway 2 Require Now?

Pathway 2 still exists and remains a valid route. It runs through December 31, 2031. What changed is how coursework gets verified in the meantime.

Instead of ABAI confirming a whole sequence upfront, each student now goes through the Pathway 2 Coursework Attestation. The university designates a full-time faculty member in the program’s department who holds active BCBA or BCBA-D certification as its Pathway 2 Program Contact. When you finish your coursework, that contact reviews your records and submits a formal attestation to the BACB.

One clarification, because a lot of coverage gets this wrong. Pathways 1 and 2 aren’t the only routes open right now. Pathways 3 and 4 remain available to qualifying applicants throughout 2026 and are discontinued on January 1, 2027. If you’re applying this year and you’ve been working from an older eligibility route, check the BACB’s requirements before you assume it’s gone.

Here’s how the two long-term pathways compare:

Pathway 1 (Accreditation)Pathway 2 (Attestation)
What qualifies youA qualifying degree from an ABAI-accredited, ABAI-recognized (Tier 1, 2a or 2b), or APBA-accredited programA qualifying master’s degree plus behavior-analytic coursework attested by your university’s Program Contact
Who verifiesABAI or APBA, independent of the universityYour own university’s Pathway 2 Program Contact
Can you check it before enrolling?Yes. ABAI publishes both lists publiclyNo. There’s no central directory of Pathway 2 programs
Valid throughAccredited programs continue past 2032. ABAI Tier 2a and 2b recognition stops qualifying after December 31, 2031December 31, 2031, then discontinued
2027 requirements changeHandled through the accreditation review cycle, though programs and students still have to meet the rules in force when you applyPrograms must align coursework with the BACB’s 2027 BCBA Requirements by January 1, 2027
After December 31, 2031Only ABAI-accredited or APBA-accredited degrees qualifyNo longer available

That third row is the one students feel. Under the VCS you could look up a program’s status before applying. Now a program can tell you its curriculum meets Pathway 2 requirements, and no independent body is confirming that upfront the way ABAI once did.

Does Your Degree Have to Say “Applied Behavior Analysis”?

No. What the BACB cares about is whether the coursework covers the required content, not what the diploma is called. A behavior-analytic sequence can sit inside a differently named degree, which is how a lot of programs are actually structured.

Faculty Voice

“Our recent BCBA graduates have found jobs in school, university, laboratory, community, clinic, and consultation settings. Our BCBA course sequence fits nicely within our School Psychology or Experimental Psychology graduate programs, so we can work with a wide variety of student interests and help them to get where they want to go.

Dr. Seth Whiting, Ph.D., BCBA-D

Dr. Seth Whiting, Ph.D., BCBA-DAssociate Professor of Psychology and MSABA Program Director, LSU Shreveport

Worth knowing that a program can be entirely legitimate and still not appear in the directory below. LSU Shreveport’s master’s in ABA states that it has earned Pathway 2 Program designation, which means it has an authorized Program Contact and offers coursework built to satisfy Pathway 2. That’s a real route to the exam. It isn’t accreditation, and the BACB doesn’t treat it as a program-level quality credential, which is why it isn’t listed here.

Why an Accredited Program Is the Safer Bet

Pathway 1 is the cleaner option for students who want certainty. Earn a qualifying degree from an ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized program, or an APBA-accredited program, and the degree itself satisfies both the degree requirement and the coursework requirement. No separate attestation, no content-hour audit, no Program Contact to track down.

A note on APBA, since it’s the newest piece. APBA opened its accreditation applications on January 20, 2026 and will post accredited programs publicly once there are any. As of August 2026 there aren’t, so every program in the directory below reaches Pathway 1 through ABAI. APBA accreditation is currently available only for master’s programs in the United States and Canada, and its board isn’t yet recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation, though APBA says it built its requirements with that goal in mind. Check APBA directly before you enroll anywhere, because that will change.

ABAI classifies programs in tiers:

TierDesignationDegree Types CoveredQualifies for Pathway 1 Through
Tier 1ABAI-AccreditedAll degree levelsProgram-specific accreditation periods, continuing past 2032
Tier 2aABAI-RecognizedMaster’s and doctoral programsDecember 31, 2031
Tier 2bABAI-RecognizedBachelor’s and undergraduate programs, which route to BCaBA rather than BCBADecember 31, 2031

Here’s the piece many students haven’t caught yet. From January 1, 2032, BCBA applicants must use Pathway 1, and only ABAI-accredited or APBA-accredited degrees will qualify. Tier 2a and 2b recognition alone won’t be enough. So accreditation and recognition aren’t interchangeable even though both satisfy Pathway 1 today.

Two more dates worth knowing. From January 1, 2027, applicants must meet the BACB’s revised 2027 BCBA Requirements, which cover degree, coursework, supervised fieldwork, continuing education, and ongoing supervision. And from January 1, 2029, a Pathway 1 applicant’s master’s degree must be equivalent to a US master’s degree, a rule aimed mainly at internationally trained applicants.

Who Does the Work of Keeping Up With Changing Standards?

Under Pathway 1, the accreditation review cycle carries most of it. Under Pathway 2, the program does, student by student, and the January 2027 deadline is the next test of that. Faculty who run programs describe it as continuous rather than periodic.

“We are focused on maintaining high academic rigor, ethical and practical decision making and research in the field of ABA. We are quickly growing. We continually update and structure our courses to ensure that we are aligned and are in compliance with the BACB and ABAI current Tasklist/Standards.”

When a program is accredited, that alignment work is checked by someone other than the program itself. That’s the difference.

How Should You Read the Directory Below?

The directory lists programs that currently satisfy Pathway 1. Because APBA hasn’t accredited any programs yet, that means it’s an ABAI list: 59 separately accredited programs at 36 US institutions, plus 17 recognized programs at 16 institutions. Universities often hold several separate accreditations, so the program count runs higher than the institution count.

Each state shows two categories where they apply.

ABAI-Accredited (Tier 1) is the highest designation, with program-specific periods that continue past 2032. If you want maximum certainty about eligibility regardless of when you graduate, this is the strongest choice.

ABAI-Recognized (Tier 2a and 2b) programs have completed ABAI’s recognition process and satisfy Pathway 1 today. They’re quality programs with a peer-reviewed designation. If you’ll graduate and apply before 2032, they’re fully viable.

Why We List Accreditation Dates

Because they can matter to you directly. The BACB requires that your transcript show the qualifying degree was conferred during the period the program was accredited. A program whose term expires partway through your degree is a question worth asking about before you enrol, not after. Most programs renew without difficulty, and a lapse is rare, but the date is the thing that makes the question askable.

Accreditation is also program-specific and format-specific. ABAI states plainly that accreditation of a degree program doesn’t extend to all campuses or formats where that degree is offered. A university can hold accreditation for its on-campus master’s and not its online one, and several on this page do exactly that. Confirm your exact program, campus, and format before enrolling.

Why Do So Many States Show Nothing?

Because 21 states and the District of Columbia have no ABAI-accredited or recognized ABA graduate program based within them. That’s 22 of 51 jurisdictions, or 43%, and it’s a direct consequence of how new the accreditation-first era is.

If you’re in one of those states, you aren’t stuck. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online. We’ve named them in each empty state below, with their dates. One caveat: online doesn’t automatically mean available everywhere. State authorization rules, fieldwork placement, and institutional enrollment policies all vary, so confirm with the program that it can enrol someone in your state.

What About Programs That Have Applied but Aren’t Approved Yet?

They’re in a separate table further down. As of August 2026 there are 14 US programs in ABAI’s accreditation queue and 55 in its recognition queue, which are two different processes with different standards. We’ve kept both out of the state listings on purpose, because none of them satisfies Pathway 1 right now. ABAI is explicit that eligibility doesn’t denote recognition or accredited status, and a program under review for initial recognition isn’t recognized until a decision lands.

For a student choosing today, a pending application on its own confers nothing. Do check whether a pending program separately holds ABAI recognition already, since a few are accredited at one degree level while applying at another.

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Qualifying Programs by State

Accreditation and recognition status verified directly against ABAI records in August 2026. Each entry shows the program exactly as ABAI registers it, its delivery format, and the date its current term expires. Programs are listed only if they satisfy Pathway 1 today.

 

Alabama

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Auburn University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

Jacksonville State University

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

University of Alabama in Huntsville

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (Online). Recognition through December 31, 2027.

 

Alaska

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of Alaska Anchorage

  • MS in Clinical Psychology, Applied Behavior Analysis Track (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.
  • BA/BS in Psychology, Concentration in Behavior Analysis (hybrid). Accredited through December 31, 2029.

 

Arizona

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Arizona as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Arizona programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Arkansas

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Arkansas as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Arkansas programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

California

ABAI-Accredited Programs

California State University, Los Angeles

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

California State University, Sacramento

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.

 

Colorado

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Colorado as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Colorado programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Connecticut

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Eastern Connecticut State University

  • B.S. in Psychology, Concentration in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2032.

 

Delaware

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Delaware as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Delaware programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

District of Columbia

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in District of Columbia as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any District of Columbia programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Florida

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Florida Institute of Technology

  • PhD in Behavior Analysis, Melbourne campus (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029.
  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis, Organizational Behavior Management, and ABA/OBM, Melbourne campus (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029.
  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis, Orlando campus (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029.
  • BA in Applied Behavior Analysis, Melbourne campus (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029. Initial accreditation rather than a renewal.

Florida International University

  • MS in Psychology, Behavior Analysis Major (hybrid). Accredited through December 31, 2027. Provisional accreditation, not full. ABAI noted the program needs improvements to student outcomes.

Florida State University, Panama City

  • MS in Psychology with a Specialty in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus, Panama City and Tallahassee link-classroom). Accredited through December 31, 2029.

Rollins College

  • MA in Applied Behavior Analysis and Clinical Science (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.

University of Florida

  • Ph.D. in Psychology, Specialization in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.
  • M.S. in Psychology, Specialization in Behavior Analysis (PhD admits only). Accredited through December 31, 2031. Open only to students already admitted to the accredited doctoral program, so you can’t apply to it directly.
  • B.S. in Psychology, Specialization in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.

University of South Florida

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

 

Georgia

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Georgia State University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (On-Campus). Recognition through December 31, 2027.

 

Hawaii

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Hawaii as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Hawaii programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Idaho

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Idaho as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Idaho programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Illinois

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Southern Illinois University Carbondale

  • MS in Behavior Analysis and Therapy (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

The Chicago School

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis, Chicago Campus (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2027.
  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis, Dallas Campus (hybrid). Accredited through December 31, 2027. Initial accreditation rather than a renewal.
  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis, Online (online). Accredited through December 31, 2027.

 

Indiana

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Indiana as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Indiana programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Iowa

ABAI-Recognized Programs

University of Iowa

  • M.A. in Special Education, Applied Behavior Analysis (Hybrid). Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

Kansas

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of Kansas

  • PhD in Behavioral Psychology (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2032.
  • MA in Applied Behavioral Science (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2032.
  • MA in Applied Behavioral Science (online). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

 

Kentucky

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Kentucky as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Kentucky programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Louisiana

ABAI-Accredited Programs

McNeese State University

  • MA in Psychology with a Concentration in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2027.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Louisiana State University

  • Ph.D. in Psychology, Concentration in Applied Behavior Analysis (On-Campus). Recognition through December 31, 2027.

 

Maine

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Maine as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Maine programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Maryland

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of Maryland, Baltimore County

  • MA in Human Services Psychology (ABA track). Accredited through December 31, 2032.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Mount St. Mary’s University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (On-Campus/Online). Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

Massachusetts

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Regis College

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029.
  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (online). Accredited through December 31, 2027. Initial accreditation rather than a renewal.

Salem State University

  • MS in Behavior Analysis (hybrid). Accredited through December 31, 2026. A re-accreditation application has been under review since March 2026. ABAI keeps a program accredited throughout that process.

Simmons University

  • MS in Behavior Analysis (on-campus, also EdS). Accredited through December 31, 2028.
  • MS in Behavior Analysis (online). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Assumption University

  • M.A. in Applied Behavior Analysis (Hybrid). Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

Michigan

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Western Michigan University

  • PhD in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2032.
  • MA in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2032.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Wayne State University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis. Recognition through December 31, 2027.

 

Minnesota

ABAI-Accredited Programs

St. Cloud State University

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.
  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (online). Accredited through December 31, 2031.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

University of Minnesota, Twin Cities

  • M.A. in Special Education, Applied Behavior Analysis (On-Campus). Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

Mississippi

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Mississippi as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Mississippi programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Missouri

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of Missouri, Columbia

  • MS in Applied Behavior Analysis (hybrid). Accredited through December 31, 2027.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Webster University

  • M.A. in Applied Behavior Analysis. Recognition through December 31, 2027.

 

Montana

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Montana State University Billings

  • MS in Special Education, Advanced Studies, Applied Behavior Analysis (online). Accredited through December 31, 2026. On moratorium and not accepting new students since April 24, 2024. ABAI extended accreditation for the moratorium’s duration so enrolled students finish under an accredited program, but the program is closed to new applicants. The graduate ABA certificate is also on moratorium.

 

Nebraska

ABAI-Accredited Programs

UNMC Munroe-Meyer Institute

  • PhD in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.

 

Nevada

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of Nevada, Reno

  • PhD in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2027.
  • MS in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2027.
  • MS in Behavior Analysis, Global Institute for Behavior Analysis (online) Re-accreditation deferred. ABAI voted in 2026 to defer for one year, citing concerns about fiscal and faculty resources and adherence to thesis-equivalent requirements. The program stays accredited during the deferral, and ABAI publishes no expiry date for it at present.
  • BS in Psychology, Behavior Science (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

University of Nevada, Reno

  • M.Ed. in Special Education, Applied Behavior Analysis Sub-Plan (Online). Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

New Hampshire

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in New Hampshire as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any New Hampshire programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

New Jersey

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Caldwell University

  • PhD in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029.
  • MA in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2029.

 

New Mexico

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in New Mexico as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any New Mexico programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

New York

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Teachers College, Columbia University

  • PhD in Special Education: Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.
  • MA in Teaching Students with Disabilities: Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

ABAI-Recognized Programs

Daemen University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (Online). Recognition through December 31, 2027.

State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (Online). Recognition through December 31, 2027. Provisional recognition.

Touro University

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (On-Campus/Online). Recognition through December 31, 2028. Provisional recognition.

 

North Carolina

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of North Carolina Wilmington

  • PhD in Psychology with a Concentration in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.
  • MS in Psychology with a Concentration in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

 

North Dakota

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in North Dakota as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any North Dakota programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Ohio

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Ohio State University

  • PhD in Educational Studies, Special Education – Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.
  • MA in Educational Studies, Special Education – Applied Behavior Analysis (online). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

 

Oklahoma

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Oklahoma as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Oklahoma programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Oregon

ABAI-Recognized Programs

University of Oregon

  • M.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (Online). Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

Pennsylvania

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg

  • M.A. in Applied Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2027. Initial accreditation rather than a renewal.

 

Rhode Island

ABAI-Accredited Programs

Salve Regina University

  • MS in Behavior Analysis (on-campus, evening classes in Newport). Accredited through December 31, 2029.

 

South Carolina

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in South Carolina as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any South Carolina programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

South Dakota

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in South Dakota as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any South Dakota programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Tennessee

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Tennessee as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Tennessee programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Texas

ABAI-Accredited Programs

University of Houston, Clear Lake

  • MA in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2032.

University of North Texas

  • MS in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

University of Texas at San Antonio

  • MS in Behavior Analysis (on-campus, evening classes at the Downtown Campus). Accredited through December 31, 2028.

 

Utah

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Utah as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Utah programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Vermont

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Vermont as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Vermont programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Virginia

ABAI-Recognized Programs

James Madison University

  • M.A. in Psychological Sciences, Concentration in Behavior Analysis. Recognition through December 31, 2028.

 

Washington

ABAI-Recognized Programs

University of Washington

  • M.Ed. in Special Education, Applied Behavior Analysis (On-Campus). Recognition through December 31, 2027.
  • M.Ed. in Special Education, Applied Behavior Analysis (Online). Recognition through December 31, 2027.

 

West Virginia

ABAI-Accredited Programs

West Virginia University

  • Ph.D. in Psychology with a Specialization in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2031.
  • MS in Psychology: Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030. Open only to students already admitted to the accredited doctoral program, so you can’t apply to it directly.
  • Undergraduate Certificate in Behavior Analysis (on-campus). Accredited through December 31, 2030.

 

Wisconsin

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Wisconsin as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Wisconsin programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Wyoming

No ABAI-accredited or ABAI-recognized ABA program is based in Wyoming as of August 2026. Six accredited programs are delivered fully online and don’t care where you live: St. Cloud State University (accredited through 2031), Ohio State University, the University of Kansas and Simmons University (all through 2030), and The Chicago School and Regis College (both through 2027). Recognized online programs include the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Daemen University, SUNY Downstate, the University of Oregon, and the University of Washington. Any Wyoming programs currently applying to ABAI appear in the application pipeline table below.

 

Programs in ABAI’s Application Pipeline

Here’s every US program currently somewhere in ABAI’s accreditation or recognition queue, as of August 2026. None of these satisfies Pathway 1 today. ABAI states plainly that eligibility doesn’t denote recognition or accredited status, and that a program under review for initial recognition isn’t recognized until a decision lands. For a student choosing right now, a program in this table and a program that never applied are in the same position. Both leave you on Pathway 2 attestation.

We list them because they’re useful for planning, not because they qualify. Statuses change often, so check ABAI’s own directory before you rely on any row here.

Eligible to apply means ABAI found the program eligible to submit an application. Under review means the application is in the review or site-visit process, or awaiting a Board decision.

InstitutionStateProgramLevelSeekingStatusApplied
California State University, FresnoCAM.A. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sAccreditationUnder reviewJan 2026
The Chicago School, SoCal CampusCAM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (hybrid)Master’sAccreditationUnder reviewMay 2026
The Chicago School, DC CampusDCM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (hybrid)Master’sAccreditationUnder reviewMay 2026
Savannah State UniversityGABehavior AnalysisBachelor’sAccreditationEligible to applyJun 2019
University of Massachusetts LowellMAM.S. in ABA and Autism Studies, ABA Option (hybrid)Master’sAccreditationUnder reviewFeb 2026
Western New England UniversityMAM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sAccreditationEligible to applyFeb 2026
Saint Louis UniversityMOM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sAccreditationEligible to applyJul 2026
Rowan UniversityNJM.A. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sAccreditationEligible to applyFeb 2023
Hunter CollegeNYM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (hybrid)Master’sAccreditationUnder reviewMar 2026
University of North Carolina WilmingtonNCUndergraduate Concentration in Behavior AnalysisBachelor’sAccreditationEligible to applyJun 2025
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic MedicinePAM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (hybrid)Master’sAccreditationUnder reviewJun 2026
Temple UniversityPAM.Ed. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sAccreditationUnder reviewApr 2026
Middle Tennessee State UniversityTNM.A. in Psychology, Applied Research and MethodologyMaster’sAccreditationEligible to applyJun 2026
Texas State UniversityTXM.Ed. in Special Education, Concentration in ABAMaster’sAccreditationEligible to applyApr 2022
University of Alaska AnchorageAKUndergraduate Minor in PsychologyBachelor’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2024
Arizona State UniversityAZM.S. in Special Education, Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applySep 2025
University of Colorado DenverCOM.A. in Special Education, Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applySep 2025
University of Saint JosephCTM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewDec 2025
Florida National UniversityFLB.S. in Psychology with a Concentration in ABABachelor’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2026
Jose Maria Vargas UniversityFLM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJul 2026
Miami Regional UniversityFLB.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisBachelor’sRecognitionEligible to applyMay 2025
University of South FloridaFLM.A. in Applied Behavior Analysis (online)Master’sRecognitionEligible to applyApr 2025
University of West FloridaFLM.S. in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyDec 2025
University of GeorgiaGAM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewOct 2025
Dordt UniversityIAM.Ed. in Special Education, Specialization in ABAMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewMay 2025
Loyola University ChicagoILM.Ed. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2026
Northern Illinois UniversityILM.S. in Education, Specializing in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2024
Purdue UniversityINM.S.Ed. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2026
Purdue UniversityINM.S.Ed. in Applied Behavior Analysis (online)Master’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2026
Eastern Kentucky UniversityKYM.S. in General Psychology, ABA ConcentrationMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewDec 2024
Westfield State UniversityMAM.A. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewAug 2026
Eastern Michigan UniversityMIM.S. in Psychology, Clinical BehavioralMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewMar 2026
Oakland UniversityMIM.Ed. in Special Education, Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewSep 2025
University of Michigan DearbornMIM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewDec 2025
Capella UniversityMNM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewMar 2026
Truman State UniversityMOM.A. in Disability Studies, Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyOct 2025
Washington University in St. LouisMOM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyFeb 2026
University of North Carolina CharlotteNCM.Ed. in Special Education and Child Development, ABAMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2026
University of North DakotaNDM.S. in Special Education with ABA EmphasisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyAug 2022
University of Nebraska Omaha / UNMC Munroe-Meyer InstituteNEM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2023
Georgian Court UniversityNJM.A. in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewSep 2024
University of New MexicoNMM.A. in Special Education, Concentration in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewJun 2026
University of Nevada, Las VegasNVM.Ed. in Special Education with an Emphasis in ABAMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewDec 2025
University of Nevada, RenoNVGlobal Institute for Behavior Analysis, graduate course sequenceGraduate non-degreeRecognitionEligible to applySep 2022
University of Nevada, RenoNVGlobal Institute for Behavior Analysis, undergraduate course sequenceUndergraduate non-degreeRecognitionEligible to applySep 2022
Long Island University (Post Campus)NYM.A. in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyMar 2022
Russell Sage CollegeNYM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis and AutismMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyNov 2022
St. Joseph’s University, New YorkNYM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyOct 2025
SUNY Buffalo State UniversityNYM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyMar 2026
SUNY Upstate Medical UniversityNYM.S. in Behavior Analysis StudiesMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJan 2026
John Carroll UniversityOHM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewJun 2026
University of Central OklahomaOKM.S. in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyMar 2026
Arcadia UniversityPAM.Ed. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyMay 2022
Arcadia UniversityPACertificate in Applied Behavior AnalysisGraduate non-degreeRecognitionEligible to applyMay 2022
Drexel UniversityPAM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (online)Master’sRecognitionEligible to applyApr 2025
Mercyhurst UniversityPAM.S. in Special Education, Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJun 2025
Slippery Rock UniversityPAM.Ed. in Special Education with a Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewAug 2024
Augustana UniversitySDM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewFeb 2026
Lipscomb UniversityTNM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyJul 2022
Tennessee Technological UniversityTNM.A. in Curriculum and Instruction, Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyApr 2024
Tennessee Technological UniversityTNEd.S. in Curriculum and Instruction, Concentration in ABAGraduate equivalentRecognitionEligible to applyApr 2024
University of MemphisTNM.S. in Instruction and Curriculum Leadership, Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewNov 2025
University of MemphisTNEd.D. in Applied Behavior AnalysisDoctoralRecognitionEligible to applyApr 2025
University of Houston, VictoriaTXM.Ed. in Special Education, Concentration in ABAMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewJan 2025
University of UtahUTM.Ed. in Special Education with an Emphasis in ABAMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyAug 2025
University of UtahUTM.S. in Special Education with an Emphasis in ABAMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyAug 2025
Utah Valley UniversityUTM.Ed. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyApr 2023
George Mason UniversityVAM.Ed. in Special Education with a Concentration in Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionUnder reviewJul 2026
Shenandoah UniversityVAM.S. in Applied Behavior AnalysisMaster’sRecognitionEligible to applyMay 2024
Purdue University GlobalINB.S. in Psychology in Applied Behavior Analysis (online)Bachelor’sRecognitionSelf-reported as pursuing, not listed by ABAI—
Purdue University GlobalINM.S. in Applied Behavior Analysis (online)Master’sRecognitionSelf-reported as pursuing, not listed by ABAI—

A note on the last two rows. Purdue University Global states on its own program pages that both its bachelor’s and master’s in applied behavior analysis are pursuing recognition through ABAI’s Tiered Model, and adds that pursuit of recognition doesn’t denote recognition status. Neither program appears in ABAI’s public list of recognition applications as of August 2026. Purdue Global is a separate institution from Purdue University in West Lafayette, which does appear above.

Frequently Asked Questions

What replaced the Verified Course Sequence?

Two different things, depending on which pathway you use. Under Pathway 1, accreditation or recognition does the work: your degree from a qualifying program satisfies both the degree and coursework requirements on its own. Under Pathway 2, your university’s designated Program Contact reviews your records and submits a Coursework Attestation to the BACB after you finish. The old course-by-course review against a published VCS list no longer exists for new applications.

Does ABAI accreditation expire, and does that affect me?

Yes, and it can. ABAI grants accreditation for a set term, usually three to seven years, and programs reapply before it lapses. What matters for you is that the BACB requires your transcript to show your degree was conferred during a period when the program was accredited. Most programs renew without incident, but if a program’s current term ends partway through your studies, that’s a fair question to put to the program director before you enrol. We’ve listed every current expiry date above so you can ask it.

Can I still become a BCBA through a program that isn’t accredited?

Until December 31, 2031, yes, through Pathway 2. Your program needs an authorized Pathway 2 Program Contact who can attest that your coursework meets the requirements. Plenty of strong programs operate this way and there’s nothing second-rate about them. From January 1, 2032, that route closes and only degrees from ABAI-accredited or APBA-accredited programs will qualify.

Are there accredited ABA programs I can do entirely online?

Six, as of August 2026: St. Cloud State University, Ohio State University, the University of Kansas, Simmons University, The Chicago School, and Regis College. Several ABAI-recognized programs are online too. One caution worth taking seriously: accreditation is format-specific, so a university’s online program isn’t automatically covered by its on-campus accreditation. Several universities on this page hold one and not the other. Check that the specific format you’re enrolling in is the accredited one, and confirm the program can enrol students in your state.

What actually changes in 2032?

Pathway 1 becomes the only route to BCBA certification, and the bar rises within it. Right now, ABAI accreditation, ABAI recognition at Tier 2a or 2b, and APBA accreditation all satisfy Pathway 1. From January 1, 2032, only accredited programs count. Recognition alone won’t be enough. If you’re starting a degree now you’ll almost certainly apply well before then, but it’s the reason accreditation is the more durable choice.

Key Takeaways

  • The VCS is gone. ABAI discontinued it on December 31, 2025. If you hold a VCS Coordinator Coursework Attestation submitted before that date, you can still use it through December 31, 2026.
  • Pathway 1 has three routes, not one. ABAI accreditation, ABAI recognition, and APBA accreditation all qualify. APBA opened applications in January 2026 and hasn’t accredited any programs yet, so every program listed here reaches Pathway 1 through ABAI.
  • Four pathways are open in 2026. Pathways 3 and 4 are discontinued on January 1, 2027, and Pathway 2 runs until December 31, 2031.
  • Accreditation and recognition aren’t the same thing. Both satisfy Pathway 1 today. Only accreditation survives the January 1, 2032 change.
  • Accreditation is program-specific and format-specific. A university can hold it for the on-campus degree and not the online one. Several on this page do.
  • Your degree has to be conferred while the program is accredited. That’s why every expiry date is listed above.
  • Twenty-one states and DC have no qualifying program based in them. Six accredited programs run fully online, so location doesn’t have to decide it for you.
  • A pending application confers nothing. Sixty-nine US programs sit in ABAI’s accreditation or recognition queues. None of them satisfies Pathway 1 today.
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AppliedBehaviorAnalysisEdu Editorial Staff
We've covered applied behavior analysis education, BACB certification, and ABA careers since 2016. Certification and licensure requirements on this site are verified against current BACB handbooks and state regulatory sources rather than secondary summaries, and we date every figure so you can tell how current it is. Salary and employment data comes directly from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Faculty perspectives throughout our guides come from our own interview series with professors at 61 ABA programs nationwide, conducted by us and published in full. Where the evidence is genuinely mixed, we say so instead of picking the tidier answer.